Collecting representative dust samples: A comparison of various sampling methods in underground coal mines

Former methods used in the U.S. to assess hazardous and explosible coal dust date back to the 1950s. As mining technologies advanced, so too have the hazards. Given the results of the recent coal dust particle size survey and full-scale experimental mine explosion tests, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) recommended a new minimum standard, in the absence of background methane, of 80% total incombustible content (TIC) be required in the intake airways of bituminous coal mines, replacing the previous 65% TIC requirement. Most important to monitoring and maintaining the 80% TIC is the ability to effectively collect and analyze representative dust samples that would likely disperse and participate in dust explosion propagation. Research has shown that dust suspended on elevated surfaces is usually finer, more reactive, and more readily dispersible while floor deposits of dust are generally coarser and more difficult to disperse given the same blast of air. The roof, rib, and floor portions of the dust samples were collected and analyzed for incombustible content separately and the results were compared to a band sample of the roof, rib, and floor components. Results indicate that the roof and rib dust samples should be kept separate from floor dust samples and considered individually for analyses. The various experimental collection methods are detailed along with preferred sampling approaches that improve the detectability of potentially hazardous accumulations of explosible dust.     

Effect of admixture of solid inertant on fire hazard of dust layers oriented at varying degrees of inclination

Unlike metallic dust layers, the layer flammability levels (LFL) of non-metallic dust layers exhibit a wide range from Class 1 (No self-sustained combustion) to Class 6 (explosive combustion). However, determinations of layer flammability have not considered the effect of inclination angle, thereby potentially underestimating fire hazard of combustible dust layers in many industrial situations. In this research, inclined dust layers showed greater fire hazard than did horizontally oriented dust layers. For example, LFL of wood dust jumped from class 3 to class 5 when layers were positioned with an incline. Flame spread rate of PMMA dust layers increased from 1.8 to 3.6 mm/s when the angle of inclination increased from 0 to 40°. Even small amounts of solid inertant significantly decreased surface layer fires. The required amount of inertant to completely inert layer fires was far less than that for smoldering layer fires or dust explosions.     

Numerical study on premixing characteristics and explosion process of starch in a vertical pipe under turbulent flow

Fire and explosion accidents are frequently caused by combustible dust, which has led to increased interest in this area of research. Although scholars have performed some research in this field, they often ignored interesting phenomena in their experiments. In this paper, we established a 2D numerical method to thoroughly investigate the particle motion and distribution before ignition. The optimal time for the corn starch dust cloud to ignite was determined in a semi-closed tube, and the characteristics of the flame propagation and temperature field were investigated after ignition inside and outside the tube. From the simulation, certain unexpected phenomena that occurred in the experiment were explained, and some suggestions were proposed for future experiments. The results from the simulation showed that 60–70 ms was the best time for the dust cloud to ignite. The local high-temperature flame clusters were caused by the agglomeration of high-temperature particles, and there were no flames near the wall of the tube due to particles gathering and attaching to the wall. Vortices formed around the nozzle, where the particle concentration was low and the flame spread slowly. During the explosion venting, particles flew out of the tube before the flame. The venting flame exhibited a “mushroom cloud” shape due to interactions with the vortex, and the flame maintained this shape as it was driven upward by the vortex.     

Research on different venting performance between flat and curved bursting panels

There is a noticeable discrepancy in the ability to control reduced explosion overpressure between flat bursting panels and curved bursting panels with the same static activation overpressure. Flat bursting plates were observed to leak at approximately 80% of the static activation overpressure lower than curved bursting plates. A new experimental technique is proposed in our paper. Three different vent areas of flat and curved bursting panels were tested, there was significant difference in structural stiffness between flat bursting panels and curved bursting panels, which is the reason the discrepancy in the ability to control reduced explosion overpressure. The structural stiffness of the flat bursting panels is poorer than that of the other, and a greater deformation of the flat bursting panels occurs under the same load. The membrane stress caused by the explosion overpressure therefore produces a larger value in the flat bursting panels which causes it to open prematurely. Moreover, the smaller the vent area that is, the more significant discrepancy in controlling the reduced explosion overpressure between both bursting panels is. This experimental and theoretical result in our paper provides some useful experience for the method of explosion venting.     

Safer and stronger together? Effects of the agglomeration on nanopowders explosion

Among the factors influencing dust explosion, the particle size distribution (PSD) is both one of the most important and complex to consider. For instance, it is commonly accepted that the explosion sensitivity increases when the particle size decreases. Such an assertion may be questionable for nano-objects which easily agglomerate. However, agglomerates can be broken during the dispersion process. Correlating the explosion parameters to the actual PSD of a dust cloud at the moment of the ignition becomes then essential. The effects of the moisture content and sieving were investigated on a nanocellulose powder and the impact of a mechanical agglomeration was evaluated using a silicon coated by carbon powder. Each sample was characterized before and after dispersion using in situ laser particle size measurement and a fast mobility particle sizer, and explosion and minimum ignition energy tests were conducted respectively in a 20 L sphere and in a modified Hartmann tube. It was observed that drying and/or sieving the nanocellulose mainly led to variations in terms of ignition sensitivity but only slightly modified the explosion severity. In contrast, the mechanical agglomeration of the silicon coated by carbon led to a great decrease in terms of ignition sensitivity, with a minimum ignition energy varying from 5 mJ for the raw powder to more than 1J for the agglomerated samples. The maximum rate of pressure rise also decreased due to modifications in the reaction kinetics, inducing a transition from St2 class to St1 class when agglomerating the dust.     

Risk assessment method of polyethylene dust explosion based on explosion parameters

The explosion characteristic parameters of polyethylene dust were systematically investigated. The variations in the maximum explosion pressure (P_max), explosion index (K_st), minimum ignition energy (MIE), minimum ignition temperature (MIT), and minimum explosion concentration (MEC) of dust samples with different particle sizes were obtained. Using experimental data, a two-dimensional matrix analysis method was applied to classify the dust explosion severity based on P_max and K_st. Then, a three-dimensional matrix was used to categorize the dust explosion sensitivity based on three factors: MIE, MIT, and MEC. Finally, a two-dimensional matrix model of dust explosion risk assessment was established considering the severity and sensitivity. The model was used to evaluate the explosion risk of polyethylene dust samples with different particle sizes. It was found that the risk level of dust explosion increased with decreasing particle size, which was consistent with the actual results. The risk assessment method can provide a scientific basis for dust explosion prevention in the production of polyethylene.     

Inhibiting effects by Fe2O3 on combustion and explosion characteristics of ABS resin

The global increase in the use of, and reliance on, plastics has prompted the demand for acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) resin in various fields. With this increased requirement, numerous failures have occurred in the ABS process. Those incidents, resulting from electrostatic discharge, powder accumulation, heat accumulation, construction sparks, and plant fires, have caused dust fire and explosions.In this study, the ABS resin was gleaned from the site and tested for its explosion parameters, including minimum ignition temperature of dust cloud (MIT_C), minimum ignition energy (MIE), and minimum explosion concentration (MEC). To improve loss prevention in the manufacturing process, ferric oxide (Fe₂O₃) as an inert additive was added in the ABS powder. According to the MIE test, Fe₂O₃ has an apparent inhibiting effect on dust explosion for the ABS dust. With the proportion of Fe₂O₃ increased from 25 to 50 mass% in ABS, the MIE increased from 67 to 540 mJ. The explosion tests via 20-L apparatus indicated that Fe₂O₃ mixed with ABS could not increase the MEC significantly. However, the explosion pressure dropped by increasing in the ratio of Fe₂O₃ in ABS. This inerting strategy of ABS was deemed to substantially lessen the probability and severity of fire and explosion.     

Study into influence of different types of igniters on the explosion parameters of dispersed nitrocellulose powder

Nitrocellulose is a flammable compound produced by cellulose nitration. The nitrocellulose production and handling are associated with a risk of fire and explosion. Nitrocellulose is used as either collodion cotton (<12.5% N) or as an explosive (>12.5% N). Nitrocellulose is a fibrous or powdered substance and may detonate or burn upon certain conditions. The article compares the combustion parameters of dry nitrocellulose in the KV-150M2-UIBE explosion chamber at the concentrations of 250, 500 and 750 g m⁻³. To ignite a nitrocellulose sample, six different types of igniters were used. A commercially available 5 kJ pyrotechnic igniter was used as the standard. Also used were a nitrocellulose igniter, a pyrotechnic igniter with magnesium powder and KNO₃/KClO₃, and an exploding wire (Kanthal and tungsten wire). The examined igniters were found to affect the explosion parameters of dispersed nitrocellulose. The deviation of the explosion constant K_st reached 50% of the standard value. The highest pressure of 12.73 bar g was reached at a concentration of 750 g m⁻³ and an igniter exploding wire with Kanthal wire. The highest K_st value of 287.9 bar.m.s⁻¹ was achieved at a concentration of 750 g m⁻³, when using the pyrotechnic igniter with KClO₃ and magnesium powder.     

Numerical investigation of powder aerosolization in a mining rock dust dispersion chamber

We have conducted numerical simulations of dust dispersion within the NIOSH Rock Dust Dispersion Chamber. The apparatus consists of a low-speed background ventilation flow down a long box in which is placed a tray containing a rock dust powder. A nozzle upstream of the tray introduces a short pulse of a turbulent horizontal jet flow just above the powder surface. We have utilized an incompressible Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes k-ω model for the turbulent flow; particles are incorporated within a one-way Euler-Lagrangian formalism. The Rock Dust Dispersion Chamber ventilation flow exhibits a recirculation zone just above the powder-containing tray. Aerosolization proceeds via the interplay of the jet pulse flow with the background recirculation flow. The air flow is not well-mixed. The aerosolized dust is convected as a concentration cloud downstream towards the detection zone. For larger particles, gravitational settling depletes the convected cloud, so the instrument behaves as a horizontal elutriator. The instrument is robust with respect to misalignment of the jet nozzle. However, reduced streamwise drift velocity allows mixing to disperse the optically detected dust cloud concentration pulse. Our large particle simulation results compare favorably with published experimental results for large, polydisperse calcium carbonate rock dust.     

Classification of dispersibility for combustible dust based on Hausner ratio

Mixing of combustible dust and oxidant is one of five essential prerequisites in the dust explosion pentagon, requiring that particles originally in mutual contact within the deposits be separated and suspended in the air. However, dust dispersion never proceeds with 100% efficiency, with inevitable particle agglomeration, and an inherent trend toward settling out of suspension. Dispersibility is defined to describe the ease of dispersion of a dust and the tendency of the particulate matter to remain airborne once a dust cloud has been formed. Pioneers made contributions to classify dust dispersibility by introducing dustiness group (DG), dustability index (DI), NIOSH dispersion chamber and in-situ particle size analysis. Issues remained including the difficulty in comparing results from different methods, as well as the availability of some high-tech testing apparatus.This study aims to provide a quick and universal testing method to estimate the dispersion property of combustible dust. A new dispersibility classification was developed based on dimensionless numbers Hausner ratio and Archimedes number. Four dispersibility classes (DCs) were proposed from one to four, with a larger number meaning better dispersibility. Results for more than a dozen dust samples and mixtures thereof showed the new method is useful in dust explosion research. The consistency in classifying dust dispersion properties between the DC method and previous methods was good. Changes in DC well explained our earlier findings on suppressant enhanced explosion parameter (SEEP) phenomenon attributed to the improvement in dust dispersibility. Hausner ratio and Archimedes number, as easily measured parameters, can be quite advantageous to assess dust dispersibility, permitting a proper risk assessment for the formation of explosible dust clouds.